First Article: A Biblical Background
1. Introduction
“Light from Light” is an important expression of faith that we grew up proclaiming it in our liturgical celebrations and teaching its significances in many of the Catechism classes. The magnitude of its meanings and merits motivated us to borrow it to label a series of three articles titled as follow:
First Article: A Biblical Background
Second Article: The Metaphor Light and the Johannine Spirituality
Third Article: The Motif Light and the Maronite Liturgy
We hope and pray that the contents of these articles be a source of joy to the hearts of our dear readers, a humble contribution to their knowledge, an exciting motivation to their familiarity with the Sacred Scriptures, and a motivating inspiration to increase their fellowship with the Lord Jesus Christ.
Nowadays, in a society inundated with the tears of its struggling members and in time tinted with the shadows of their suffering, it is really a serious challenge to choose words that can sheer their broken hearts, just as it is difficult to find a theme that has the ability to lift up their wounded spirituality. What can one say to people who are not living a life they rightly deserve but surviving a sad situation inflicted unjustly on them? Their spirit is striving to understand the meaning of such horrible circumstances, their minds are clouded by the black smoke of uncertainty and their hearts is saturated with sadness caused by the corrupted behavior of evildoers. Does anyone dare to talk about light to a generation that grew up facing in a daily bases the heavy challenge of power’s shortage that affect their quotidian life in every single detail, and hearing the complains of their parents moaning (among other major matters) about the bills of electric generators that never cease increasing erratically month after month and year after year? At this level, it is so easy to succumb to the temptation of getting involved in the ongoing multi-dimensional heated debate about these matters. That is not the aim of the present article; it hopes rather to bring to our dear readers some peace to their minds and joy to their hearts by providing them with a concise about the Biblical background of the motif Light.
As “Children of Light” (Ephesians 5:8, 14; 1Thessalonians 5:5; John 12:36) and “Light of the World” (Matthew 5:14) however, Confusion is not allowed to invade our mind, Sadness is forbidden to enter into the sanctuary of our hearts, and Despair is banned to disturb the stillness of our spirituality. Rather, by the merits of our Baptism, we are called to “follow the Light of the World” (John 8:12), Who bestowed upon us the same title “you are the Light of the World” and encouraged us to let our light shine before people so that they may see our good works and glorify our Father in heaven (Matthew 5:13-16). In other words, we are invited to be a joyful icon of Light (φω̂ς) in the midst of an agonizing country and its grieving inhabitants. The Evangelists and the inspired authors of the New Testament, especially the Apostle John cherished this divine invitation and devotedly responded to its requirements: remarkably, this could be undoubtedly noticed from his skillful use of the Light motif/metaphor in his gospel (on which we are going to elaborate in the next article).
Affluent in Figurative Language primarily metaphors, the narrative of the Fourth Gospel[1] has never ceased to appeal to many great minds and to captivate the hearts of its readers. It combines amazingly pure simplicity, unsurpassable theological profundity, Christological richness, and great spiritual motivation and inspiration. Thus, it has always been a precious treasure on which the Church could rely to express her faith and celebrate her liturgy. This is highlighted in the significant occurrence of the light metaphor,[2] which John the Evangelist employed, in a unique way, to convey the message of his gospel and to narrate, in simple but powerful terms, the events of the Life, Death, and Resurrection of Jesus Christ portraying Him as the eternal and pre-existent ‘Logos’, incarnate ‘Word of God’, ‘Light of the World’ and ‘Agent of Creation’ (see John 1:1-18). In the present article, we are going to approach panoramically and concisely the background of Light in the narratives of both the New Testament and the Old Testament, with a special attention directed to its occurrence in the Gospel of John. This will set the platform for our next article.
2 Light in the Old Testament
2.1 Light and God
In the Old Testament, light is part of the figurative language employed to characterize spirituality (Psalms 31:16; 37:6; 104:2; 112:4; 119:105), to describe the Lord God, and to suggest aspects of divine revelations (Job 37:15; Exodus 24:16-18; Psalm 78:14). The light of theophanies involves an existential meaning for the participants; it may emphasized the majesty of Yahweh on intimate terms with his People (Micah 7:8; Psalm 36:9), or make them feel His ‘hidden power’ (Habakkuk 3:3-4). Yahweh is resplendent, (Isaiah 42:16), and irradiates light (Habakkuk 3:4). Hence, no darkness can hide from Him (Psalm 139:11-12). He brings what is hidden to light (Job 12:22, 28:11). Natural relations pursue their course in his sphere. Light means self-understanding and freedom from care (Psalm 97:11); it describes the almighty Yahweh in action (Psalm 44:3). His nature is compared to light (Isaiah 10:17; 60:19; Psalm 35:10; Wisdom 7:26). He dwells in it (Psalm 104:1-2). He is surrounded by hurling lightning (Ezekiel 1:13-14; Psalm 18:15). His throne is flashing like crystal (Exodus 24:10-13; Ezekiel 1:27-28). Moreover, when Yahweh appears, He causes his light to shine (Job 37:3; Habakkuk 3:3-5). His glory shines with a brilliant light (Baruch 5:9; Ezekiel 10:4). The linking of the light and the throne of God is the key to understanding the light imagery of the Old Testament. The great source of light, which dawned (Psalm 50:2) upon the people like a sunrise, was actually the glory of the presence of Yahweh, described by the prophets; see also: (Exodus 13:21; 1 Samuel 3:3; 2 Chronicles 4:7; Isaiah 6:1-8; 60:1-3; Ezekiel 8:4; 10:18).
To these suggestions of the divine presence, the metaphor of the luminous appearance adds a reassuring note of benevolence (Psalms 4:7; 31:17; 89:16; Numbers 6:25; Proverbs 16:15). Yahweh is the light of his ‘People’/Israel/the House of Jacob (Isaiah l0:17; Psalm 27:1); When He shows his favor to them, He lets his face shine upon them (Numbers 6:25; Psalms 4:7; 88:16). They are called to walk in his light (Isaiah 2:5). His interventions in their history are surrounded by light and lightning (Exodus 3:2; 19:16; Deuteronomy 33:2; Psalm 17:15; 49:2; Isaiah 30:27; 66:15). In the Book of Wisdom, a pouring out of God’s glory, is a reflection of the eternal light, ‘and is superior to all created light’ (Wisdom 7:27-29); see also Habakkuk (3:11) and Zechariah (14:7).
2.2 Light and Creation
To the ancient Hebrew, ‘light’ was recognized as a holy thing, and like everything else, exists only as a creature of God. It is a sign that visibly manifests certain aspects of his identity and reflects his glory. And the light of day emerging from the original chaos (Genesis 1:1-5) as well as the light of the stars illuminating the earth, day and night (Genesis 1:14-19) refer to the first emergence of his creative act. The prophet Amos describe Yahweh as the Lord of light and darkness (Amos 5:8). He has created the world-order with the firm rhythm of day and night. But He can break or interrupt this rhythm whenever He wills it, sending darkness on Egypt or causing the sun to stand still, (Joshua 10:12-15). He sends it forth and calls it back, and the light obeys trembling (Baruch 3:33). The alternating darkness is also in the same situation, since the same Creator -God Himself- fashioned both light and darkness (Isaiah 45:7; Amos 4:13). Therefore, they sing the same hymn of praise to Him (Psalms 19:2, 8; 148:3; Daniel 3:71). Thus, all mythical notions are radically removed. This does not, however, prevent light and darkness from having a metaphorical meaning.
2.3 Light and Life
Light and Life go together and the term light is used in conjunction with life to express that ultimate blessedness, which God gives to human beings (Psalm 36:9).[3] Light ‘is sweet, and it is delightful to see the sun’ (Qoheleth 11:7). From this common experience comes the close association between light and life; to be born is to ‘see the day’ (Job 3:16; Psalm 58:9). The blind person who does not see the ‘light of God’ (Tobit 3:17; 11:8) has a foretaste of death (Tobit 5:11-12). But the sick person, snatched from death by God, rejoices to see again ‘the light of the living’ (Job 33:30; Psalm 56:4) shining on him. Light and Darkness thus have opposite meanings; they represent the two destinies awaiting humans: happiness and misery.
2.4 Light and Salvation
As light is the symbol of divine presence, it is also one of the blessings of the Messianic salvation (Isaiah 9:1; 58:8), and salvation is considered like being in the light. It is a term for true life or salvation (Psalm 36:9); to see it is to live (Job 3:16). Apocalyptically, the advent of salvation brings light (Isaiah 9:2) and the Servant of the Lord is a light to the Gentiles (Isaiah 42:6; Daniel 12:3). The presence of Yahweh with his people is a protecting presence (Job 22:28; Psalm 26:1; Micah 7:8). He illumines their paths by his Law (Proverb 6:23; Psalm 119: 105; Isaiah 2:5; 51:4; Baruch 4:2), and saves them (Psalm 27:1) from peril by lighting up their eyes (Psalm 13:4). He is a guiding lamp (Job 29:3; Psalm 18:29), who leads the ‘just’ (Isaiah 58:10; Psalm 36:10; 97:11; 112:4) to the joy of a luminous day. The evildoers perceive their lamps extinguished (Proverb 13:9; 24:20; Job 18:5f), and stumble in the darkness (Isaiah 59:9-10). Thus, the deepest darkness -the ‘Place of perdition’- is where they are ‘cut off from the hand’ of the God of salvation (Psalms 88:1, 6-13) on the ‘Day of Judgment’. Also, Yahweh dawns on those who believe in Him/their paths like the morning light (Job 22:28; 38:12; Wisdom 7:10; Hosea 7:6; Amos 5:20; 2 Maccabees 12:9; Ezekiel 10:4; 43:2);
2.5 Light and its physical references
Apart from the metaphorically usage, light is also used in the Old Testament with a physical meaning. It signifies the light of the stars in (Genesis 1:14, 16; Isaiah 30:26; Wisdom 13:2; Ben Sira 43:7), sunshine (Amos 8:9), broad daylight (Judges 16:2), and natural life (Psalms 38:10; 56:13). Similarly, there are other terms: ‘to shine’ (Isaiah 9:1; 60:5); ‘to shine forth’ (Deuteronomy 33:2); ‘break of day’ (2 Samuel 2:32); ‘radiance’ and ‘brightening of the eyes’ (1 Samuel 14:27, 29; Isaiah 60:1, 19).
2.6 Light and ‘the Day of Judgment’
On the Day of Judgment, the darkness will arise, and the light of God, which He bestowed in the radiance of the sun and moon (Isaiah 34:4; Joel 2:l0; 3:4; 4:15-17; Zephaniah 1:15) will be taken from the world. Darkness, the scourge for the Egyptians is one of the signs announcing this day (Exodus 10:21-29; Isaiah 13:10; Jeremiah 4:23; 13:16; Ezekiel 32:7; Amos 8:9; Joe1 2:10; 3:4; 4:15). For a sinful world, the “Day of Judgment” will be darkness not light; but for the lowly and suffering just ones, it will be a day of ‘deliverance’ (Amos 5:18; Isaiah 8:21; 9:1; 42:7; 49:9; Micah 7:8). Thus, will re-occur for the just and for sinners the two destinies strikingly exemplified in the history of the exodus: darkness for the wicked, but a day of bright light for the just (Wisdom 17:1-18:4). The just will shine like the sky and the stars, while the wicked will dwell forever in the dark horror of Sheol (Daniel 12:3; Wisdom 3:7). The perspective opens upon a world transfigured by the image of the God of light. This image has an obvious meaning and allows many applications. It suggests the clearness of a wonderful day without the alternation of day and night (Isaiah 30:26; Zechariah 14:7).
3 Light in the New Testament
In the New Testament, the use of the light motif can be traced clearly along four main lines as explained in the succeeding sections.
3.1 Light and God
Since light was considered by the ancients to contain very little materiality, it was acceptable for them to use it as metaphor in order to express the incorporeal, pure and holy nature of God. The authors of the New Testament adopted this concept and used it as metaphor to talk/write about God and to describe his divine message. God is light and there is no darkness in Him (1 John 1:5). He possesses immortality, truth and holiness. He dwells in unapproachable light (1 Timothy 6:16), and calls to it the ‘children of light’ (Ephesians 5:8, 14; 1 Thessalonians 5:5; John 12:36). On his ‘Great Day’, He will shed his light upon the saints (Revelation 22:5; Colossians 1:12). All who live according to the truths of the gospel may be called ‘Children of the light’ (1 Peter 2:9), because they have received the spiritual light of truth and grace, and are to radiate this light into the world by their good example (Matthew 5, 14-16).
3.2 Light and Jesus
The human birth of Jesus was accompanied by the splendor of the heavenly bodies manifested to the shepherds (Luke 2:9) and the Magi (Matthew 2:2, 9). By his words and deeds, The Only Begotten Son revealed himself as the image (Hebrew 1:3) of God the “Father of light” (James 1:5), whose “home is inaccessible light” (1 Timothy 6:16). Therefore, according to the New testaments narratives everything, which is light, comes from Jesus: the creation of physical light (John 1:4; James 1:17); the illumination of the human hearts (2 Corinthians 4:3); and the Gentiles (Luke 1:79; 2:32). Through his Good News, Life and Eternal Life were brought to light (2 Timothy 1:10); converting to Him is a transition from darkness to light (Acts 26:18). And those who follow Him are ‘the light of the world’ (Matthew 5:14-16; Luke 8:16; Revelation 21:24). The light that He carried within Him became visible to his disciples in an extraordinary vision (Matthew 17:2): the transfiguration narrative is dependent on certain metaphors proper to the theophanies of the Old Testament. The light, which shone on the face of Jesus, is that of the glory of God (2 Corinthians 4:6). This could be seen as an anticipation of his risen state when He appeared to Paul in a shining light (Acts 9:3; 22:6; 26:13).
3.3 Light and People
The ‘eschatological light’ promised by the prophets in the Old Testament became a reality in the New Testament (Matthew 4:16; Luke 1:78; 2:32; Acts 26: 23). Paul’s vocation to proclaim the gospel to the Gentiles was along the line of the same prophetic texts. Once blinded by the ‘light from heaven’ (Acts 9:3), he would later see his ministry in terms of bringing light to the Gentiles (Acts 13:47) and thereby ‘opening blind eyes’ (Acts 26:18). Paul puts on the armor of light to contend with the rulers of world darkness (2 Corinthians 11:14). He exhorts his converts to walk as children of light (Ephesians 5:8). The revelation of Jesus Christ as the light of the world brings into relief the darkness-light antithesis, not in a metaphysical perspective, but on a moral level. Light defines the kingdom of God as one of goodness and justice; darkness specifies the domain of Satan (2 Corinthians 6:14-15). People are either ‘children of light’ or ‘children of darkness’ and their life is ruled by light or ‘darkness’ (John 12:36; Luke 16:8; Ephesians 5:7-9; 1 Thessalonians 5:4-5; 1 John 1:16-7; 2:9-10). The coming of the Light makes this distinction (John 3:19-21; 7:7; 9:39; 12:46; Ephesians 5:12-13) of one person from another. Thus, in these references, it is not the metaphysical implications of the contrast ‘light-darkness’ that is emphasized, but their ethical implications.
3.5 Related Terms and Themes
Although briefly, the terms night and day, used in the New Testament accounts, should be mentioned. Nightoperates not only as a chronological indicator of time but also serves as an occasion to illustrate certain ‘dramatic escapes’ (Acts 5:19; 9:23-25; 17:10; Matthew 2:14); or heavenly visions (Acts 16:9; 18:9; 23:11; 27:23; Luke 2:8) that occurred at night. Day serves little purpose other than as a chronological indicator of time (Hebrew 11:30; 1 Thessalonians 5:5). It is coupled with night (Acts 9:24; 20:31; Revelation 4:8; 7:15; Romans 5:1; Luke 2:37; 18:7) for the sake of emphasis. The Apostle Peter uses both terms to talk about ‘sin’ and correlated punishments (2 Peter 2:13-14). Furthermore, in the New Testament, Light is employed as a symbol of life, joy, and messianic deliverance (Matthew 4:16; Luke 1:79; Romans 13:11-12); and Darkness as a symbol of death, misery, and enslavement. The metaphor ‘see the light’ is used in the Good News grounded in Jesus’ person, words, and works (Luke 8:16; 11:33). The proclamation the Disciples’ faith and their self-understanding are described as being ‘the light of the world’, ‘shining before people’, and oriented toward God (Matthew 5:14-16; 6:23; Luke 11:35). Saints are those who have been ‘enlightened’ (Hebrew 6:4; 10:32), yet they still await the ‘pure light’ (Romans 6.2). Christians have been ‘called out of darkness into the light of God (1 Peter 2:9). This light shines also on the Gentiles (Luke 2:32; Acts 13:47; Ephesians 5:14); it is, however, at its brightest in the kingdom of Heaven (Matthew 8:12; 22:13; 25:30; Revelation 22:5). In the apocalyptic vision of judgment in the Book of Revelation (18:23), the extinguishing of light is viewed as the end of all signs of life. Moreover, in Revelation 21:24-25 walking in the light constitutes fullness of life for the New Jerusalem. The metaphors of light and darkness portray here the transition to salvation in incisive language of ‘effective solicitation’ with a tendency for extremes of expression: darkness-glorious light.
3.4 Literal use
It was God who created light (2 Corinthians 4:6). Light is employed sometimes in the material sense of outward light or daylight (Luke 8:16), or as in the common motif of the appearance of light at an epiphany (Matthew 17:2, 5; Acts 12:7). The light from heaven, which shone around Paul, exceeded that of the sun (Acts 9:3; 22:6, 9, 11; 26:13). By a figure borrowed from the daylight, ‘in the light’ is used in the sense of being open or public (Matthew 10:27; Luke 12:3). It can also be used as a carrier or body of light/fire (Mark 14:54; Luke 22:56), lamp (Luke 8:16), or torch (Acts 16:29). The use is again literal in Matthew 6:23. An empirical principle is obviously the foundation of such uses and this is applied accordingly to the inner light.
4. The Light in the Gospel of John
The main aim of this paragraph is to adorn the present article and to set the platform for the next one. It intends also to show, even though concisely, the beauty of the narrative of the Fourth Gospel and how the Apostle John the Light Motif to introduce Jesus to the readers and to convey His Divine message to them so that they “may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing they may have life in his name” (John 20:31).
In John 1 – 2, the expressions “the next day” (John 1:29, 35, 43), and “the third day” (John 2:1) could be understood metaphorically. They represent significant revelatory moments of the Light/Jesus: his identity is recognized (John 1:29, 36, 49), and his glory is revealed (John 2:11). This generates fellowship with Him (John 1:39), discipleship (John 1:37, 41, 44), and faith in Him (John 1:50; 2:11).
In John 3 – 4, two significant encounters are carefully noted. The first one was with Nicodemus a “leader of the Jews”, who came to Jesus “by night” (John 3:1-21);[4] and the second one took place in the full brightness of the day with a Samaritan woman (John 4:1-42). On a metaphorical level,[5] the Fourth Evangelist used the expression “by night” to make use of the account with Nicodemus coming “by night” (John 3:2) and true believers leaving darkness to come to the light of Jesus (John 3:21). On another level, people’s interaction with the Light is described to a great extent, and associated to Judgment and salvation such as in the conversation between Jesus and Nicodemus: the truth-seekers accept the light, and the wicked reject it (John 3:19-21). This passage describes typical behavior. A person who does what is wrong refrains from doing it in the light for fear of being exposed.[6] The vacillation in choosing between light and darkness reflects here both belief/acceptance and unbelief/rejection that is self-condemnation.[7] In neither case, however, is light coupled with darkness or is the imagery developed in the text. Although the light imagery is not developed explicitly in chapter 4, yet by mentioning the time (John 4:6), the Evangelist associates the event with the ‘Hour’ of Jesus, the true worship, and the universal Salvation (John 4:21-24).
In John 5 – 6, the testimony of John the Baptist is depicted as the ‘light of a lit lamp that gave temporary joy to his listeners’ (John 5:35). In chapter 6, however, after the miracles of the loaves, the Disciples went down that ‘evening’ to the shore crossing a rough sea in the midst of a strong wind (John 6:16-20). The next ‘day’ Jesus gave a revelatory discourse revealing himself as the ‘Bread of Life’ (John 6:22-66). Here, the images of ‘evening’ and ‘day’ seem to be used in a literal sense; they are not elaborated in the narrative nor directly connected with light and darkness metaphors or their metaphorical significance.
John 7 – 8, form the literary framework that discloses the debates over the identity of Jesus before/during the Feast of the Shelters, and the ‘great rejection’ generated by them; they mark a shift in the light imagery of the Fourth Gospel. The celebrations of this feast held at Jerusalem each year (Exodus 23:14; 34:22) gave the participants a sense of what it would be like to enjoy ‘continuous day’ in the victorious presence of God. The narrative attempts to show that the teaching of Jesus was consistent with the Law the same way the Wisdom was associated with light (Psalm 119:105; Wisdom 7:26) and life (Deuteronomy 30:15-20; Sira 17:11; Proverb 8:35). The light imagery conveys the same message. The soteriological saying in these debates transcends the use of lights during the Feast, and presents Jesus as the eschatological redeemer.[8] Through the metaphorical use of light imagery, Jesus is portrayed not only as fulfilling a main characteristic of the Feast (light) but also as fulfilling all that Torah and Wisdom signified.[9] The ‘great rejection’, however, is interrupted by the special appearance of Jesus at ‘daybreak’ in the Temple where he revealed himself as the “Light of the World” (John 8:12).[10] This metaphor identifies Jesus as such by means of personification of the light; it should be interpreted in connection with the phrases that follow. Jesus is the ‘place’ where the light is present. This statement, which began at the level of Christology moved later to that of discipleship: ‘Anyone who follows me will not be walking in the dark but will have the light of life’ (John 8:12). The term walk, here as it is in John 12:46, points to the ethical dimension of discipleship. It was widely understood that walking in darkness meant acting sinfully and that walking in the light meant living in accordance with the will of God. This imagery, contrasting light and darkness, reflects everyday reality.
In John 9, the narrative relates blindness to light. The healing of the man born blind stresses the statement made in John 1:9 and John 8:12, that is the self-revelation of Jesus as ‘the light of the world’ (John 9:5).[11] At the broad level of a life experience there is a natural connection between light and vision. Since Jesus enabled someone to see, he could legitimately claim to be a source of light. The ability or inability to see depended not only upon a person’s external circumstances but also upon one’s internal condition. The inability to see the light of the world corresponds to the darkness of sin within the person’s own heart, and those who have the ability to see the light of the world also have a source of light within themselves.[12] The metaphor found in John 9:4-5 helps to establish the metaphorical dynamics in the entire passage (i.e. the physical ability to see/recognizing the divine identity of Jesus; physical darkness/spiritual blindness). Both seeing and blindness may be recognized as two alternative ways of expressing the same metaphor: Jesus Christ is the light of the world.
In John 10 – 11 – 12, the continuation of self-revelation associated with ‘doing the deeds of the Father’ and ‘giving life’ topics in John 10, together with the stories of Lazarus’ resurrection in John 11, and the triumphant entrance of Jesus to Jerusalem in John 12 present different aspects of the same Johannine theme: Jesus is the light of the world. This is echoed in John 11:9-10. Although there is no direct reference to Jesus in this passage; nevertheless, scholars understood it and interpreted it differently.[13] In John 12:35-36, the metaphor light is embedded in an interesting context: a debate about Jesus’ identity (John 12:34); a mixed reaction of the contemporary people (acceptance/praise John 12:12-13; and rejection/disbelief (John 12:37), and Jesus’ foretelling his destiny (John 12:32).
In this metaphor the term light serves as vehicle and the person of Jesus as tenor. The metaphorical expression: “the light will be with you only a little longer now” should be interpreted in association with prophecy of Jesus regarding his death and subsequent his glorification (John 12:32). Jesus encourages his listeners to walk in the light so that they may become ‘children of light’.[14] While He is present, it is still light. He invites them to accept Him otherwise darkness will overcome them.[15]
It is notable that the imageries of light and darkness occur in the first twelve chapters of the Fourth Gospel. They offer a sequence of similar contrasts to that found in its Prologue: there are people who accept the light and those who reject it; those who understand/believe in Jesus and those who do not; those who have Eternal Life and those who are perishing. Moreover, the contrast between good and evil here becomes the distinction between those whose deeds are done in God and those who do evil; those who do the truth and those who do wickedness. Some of these references are metaphors; others are not. One should read them very carefully within their contexts, which helps to determine their meaning, their functions, and the way they have been used. The Fourth Evangelist, however, used them conscientiously to introduce Jesus to the readers and encourage them to believe in Him. In this section of the gospel (John 1-11, called also Book of Signs), Jesus proclaims Himself to be the ‘Light of the World’. Afterward, in the second/last section of the gospel (John 12-20 called Book of Glory), this light ends up hiding away from the public sight (John 12:35-36), fading down in the challenging darkness of betrayal (John 13:30), passion (John 18:4, 27), and death (John 19:14); thereafter, it emerges victorious at the dawn of the Resurrection Day (John 20:1).
5. Conclusion
Metaphor has been a subject of interest at least since the time of ancient Greeks. Since that time, argument has raged between two rival traditions:[16] The first one described it as dispensable source of insight, creative and constitutive of thoughts or words; the second saw it as a simple embellishment, and merely ornamental to already existing concepts. This debate has generated several definitions.[17] Scholars differ in their definitions of metaphor and their views of its nature. Probably it is inevitable that metaphor will be differently defined and described when scholars approach it from the varying perspectives and the interests of linguistic, psychology, literary criticism and exegesis. This applies to the antithesis of light and darkness used in the ancient biblical world and its neighboring civilizations including the era and area where the books of the New Testament took their final shapes.[18]
Early dualism refers to primal chaos but does not develop the antithesis of light and darkness; there was no consistent development in their conceptualization. Along classical lines, light was understood as what is grasped philosophically or speculatively. Great diversity exists, since the classical tradition and classical usage continued on the one side, but doctrines of salvation in religious style, yet with an intermingling of philosophical elements, increasingly came to expression in the other side. No sharp lines can be drawn whereby to delimit the religious type from the philosophical type. Thus, it is not surprising to find the metaphor of light recurring in the Old Testament in an eschatological perspective. This metaphor could be understood within the framework of the Parousia (Isaiah 13:10), and in conjunction with the motifs of the ‘Day of Judgment’. In the New Testament, the ‘light-darkness’ contrast is used to talk about the kingdom of ‘Good’ and the dominion of ‘Evil’, and to illustrate their moral spheres (Luke 11:34-35; John 8:12; 12:35,46). There are two realms: that of Jesus Christ and that of Satan (Acts 26:18; 2 Corinthians 6:14-15; Colossians 1:12-13; 1 Peter 2:9), each one of them is striving for the mastery (John 13:29-30; Luke 22:53). It is up to the people to choose between these two realms: those who believe in Jesus and have fellowship Him they become children of God and light of the world, and will have the light of life (John 8:12). Contrariwise, those who deny Him and do not folly Him, they are in the darkness (John 12:35), and “walk around in the darkness. They do not know where they are going, because the darkness has blinded them” (1 John 2:11).
There are striking similarities between the usages of the light motif/metaphor in the narratives of both the Old Testament and the New Testament. The most important one is that their usages have a sublime significance and the ability to bring the reader/hearer into a ‘subject-to-subject’ relationship with a transcendent reality. They involve the reader in a transforming experience of that reality or with its message/revelation. The socio-historical dynamic of this light motif/metaphor relate to what it brings to mind in the readers, its association that comes from their ethnic and religious heritage and from receiving the conveyed message, and the emotions associated with all of this. Thus, they enter a paradoxical situation in which the divine becomes known through the earthly and the universal becomes disclosed through the particular.
Metaphors in the Fourth Gospel play the same role; they come from the daily life, which reflect the theological and Christological framework of the narrative. They have a dialectical quality that conveys a divine message/revelation reality without finally delimiting it. They have a two-fold structure: a primary level of meaning that points to the identity of Jesus and a secondary level that defines reaction (accepting or rejecting) to this identity. This can be seen clearly in the reaction of the world towards the Incarnated Logos/Light described in the Prologue.
Although light and ‘darkness’ may signify many things, their metaphorical use in the New Testament culminates in the Fourth Gospel especially in its Prologue. The Evangelist John created a literary margin that focuses their meanings without completely restricting it. The narrative establishes basic configurations of meanings by connecting light with God, Jesus/Logos, Life, Salvation, and Knowledge, and by associating darkness with their opposites. Additionally, John developed this metaphorical network of associations to represent the identity and the mission of Jesus. Thus the drama, which goes on around this representation, is a confrontation of light and darkness. The abundant use of metaphors light and darkness in the abovementioned gospel forms one of its most striking topics. These metaphors are engaging for readers because the interplay between light and darkness is a fundamental feature of human existence. They reflect the ordinary experience of people’s daily life. Day and night and brightness and shadow, establish the contours of the visible world with an evocative potency that has prompted people everywhere to ascribe religious significance to them.
In the present article, we drew a concise panorama about the biblical background of the motif light and its various metaphorical and literal uses in the Old Testament and the New Testament. Inspired by the contents of this panorama, it is fairly plausible to maintain that apart from any religious correlation, light conveys to the human mind joy, optimism, goodness, purity, beauty, dignity, and life; while darkness signifies ignorance, error, sadness, gloom, desolation, death, and evi1 in general. This is why lights are used so profusely by all peoples in their celebrations, whether civil or religious. Moreover, all religions, using natural symbolism, associate light with goodness and the divinity; darkness with wickedness and evil spirits. In the Bible, beside its literal use, the light motif is employed in association with God, creation, life, the Day of Judgment, prosperity, joy, people, and moral good. Christianity has a special reason to associate light with God, for it would be difficult to find a theme/metaphor more strongly emphasized by the Sacred Scripture than God as light. It is only natural for this light metaphor to be continued in the New Testament especially in the Fourth Gospel and its Prologue.
Bibliography
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[1]. In this article, the terms Fourth Gospel, John, the Gospel of John, John’s narrative, John’s Gospel, and the Gospel, are employed equally when it is needed to avoid any boring or unnecessary repetition. For the same reasons, the expressions John, Saint John, the Fourth Evangelist, the Evangelist, the Author, and the Apostle John are used in reference to its author.
[2]. Here, it is noteworthy to mention that among the seventy three occurrences of Light in the New Testament, twenty three can be found in the Fourth Gospel (seven of which are located in the Prologue=John1:1-17).
[3]. See Elwell (1987: 642).
[4]. Keener (2003:536) explains that the Jewish teachers often studied at night. By using the expression ‘by night’, John foreshadows Nicodemus’s ultimate discipleship in John 19:39-42.
[5]. This topic on ‘night’ is discussed by several scholars; for more details, see:
Brown (1966:130); Morris ([1969] 1985:211); Barrett [1955] (1975:204-205); and Ellis (1984:52-53).
[6]. Van Der Watt (2000: 250 – 251).
[7]. About this account Lincoln (2005:157) wrote: ‘the framework for these notions with their Christological focus is the narrative’s modified dualism of light and darkness, which provides the cosmic setting for its pervasive motif of a lawsuit between God and the world, to which the themes of witness and judgment so clearly pointed’. See also Whitacre (1999:39).
[8]. Barrett [1955] (1975:278) maintains that a review of the background of the verse 12 shows that John stands within the primitive Christian tradition; he was influenced by both Hellenistic religion and Jewish thought about Wisdom and the Law.
[9]. Lincoln (2005:264-265) draws attention to the connection between the water imagery and the light imagery in the celebration of the Feast of the Shelters.
[10]. Scholars have different opinions about this matter:
– Barrett [1955] (1975:335) considers possible backgrounds to this complex metaphor.
– Bultmann [1966] (1978:260) and Schnackenburg [1968] (1980:240) favor ‘light for the world’ as translation.
– Koester [1995] (2003:141-175) discusses in depth the different levels of the debate and the light symbolism revolving around Jesus’ identity as a teacher, prophet, Messiah, and Divine Son of Man.
[11]. Scholars have seen this matter in various ways: Barrett [1955] (1975:357) argues that this statement does not define Jesus but describes his effect upon the world. Keener (2003:779) explains that Jesus parabolically demonstrates that He is the light of the world, alluding to his announcement earlier that day (John 8:12), by healing the blind. Lincoln (2005:281) argues that the contrast between night/darkness and day/light is tied through the miracle to the opposition between the blindness of remaining in darkness and the sight that results from receiving the light.
[12]. Schnackenburg [1968] (1980:325); Barrett [1955] (1975:392); Dodd (1963:375); and Koester (2003:161-162).
[13]. Schnackenburg [1968] (1980:325-326) interprets these verses symbolically.
Barrett [1955] (1975:392) deduces that they are metaphor.
Koester (2003:163) asserts that ‘day’ designates the person of Jesus, and ‘walking’ means living in a relationship with Him.
[14]. Carson (1991:446) sustains that this phrase reflects idiomatic Hebrew and displays the ethical qualities of lights.
Koester (2003:164-165) draws attention to the usage of this ‘suggestive expression’ in the rest of the New Testament.
[15]. Schnackenburg [1968] (1980:396-397) explains that ‘darkness’ is the symbol for the realm, which is hostile to God, the realm of sin and death, judgment and annihilation.
[16]. Avis (1999:98) used ‘ornamental’ and ‘incremental’ to specify the two main rival traditions in considering metaphor.
[17]. To mention but a few: Ricoeur (1977:53-54) states that metaphor consists in speaking of one thing in terms of another that resembles it. Lakoff and Johnson (1980:5) maintain that the essence of metaphor is ‘understanding’ and ‘experiencing’ one kind of thing in terms of another. Soskice (1986:15, 49, 101) argues that metaphor is the whole speech act in which the subject (tenor) is described of in terms of a vehicle.
[18]. Culpepper (1987:191) maintains that the imagery of light and darkness has deep roots in both Hellenism and Judaism.
Ashton (1991:214) discusses the Jewish and early Christian context relating light.
Whitacre (1999:52) explains that in John, light always refers to the revelation and salvation that Jesus is and offers.
See also Peterson (1993:72-109), and Koester (2003:141-173).